Drawing their roots from Hinduism and Islam, the two traditions brought in devotional ferment conducive to India’s spiritual landscape. Anushka Singh explains how ‘Bhakti’ became an essential element of literature and showed a marked digression from orthodoxy of ritualistic worship and hierarchical structures. These devotional movements provided a platform to express their faith and emotions, breaking free from the rigid religious traditions of the time.
Indian literature has a long and rich history, dating back to ancient times. However, it was during the medieval period that two significant literary traditions emerged – Bhakti and Sufi. Rooted in Hinduism and Islam respectively, these traditions witnessed a surge of devotional movements characterised by fervent expressions of devotion. Great poets and saints like Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, and many Sufi saints’ works came to prominence that continue to inspire and resonate with people even today.
The concept of Bhakti or devotion has been deeply rooted in Hinduism, permeating the spiritual landscape with its profound significance and philosophical underpinnings. However, it was during the medieval period, particularly during and after the seventh century, that Bhakti literature flourished and evolved into a prominent form of expression for devotees.
Characterised by ardent emphasis on personal devotion (bhakti), transcending the barriers of caste, creed, and societal distinctions, the Bhakti movement sought to democratise spirituality and redefine the conventional norms of religious practice, advocating for a direct and intimate relationship between the devotee and the divine.
This shift marked a departure from the orthodoxy of ritualistic worship and hierarchical structures, placing individual faith and heartfelt devotion at the forefront of religious experience. The Bhakti movement, a transformative socio-religious phenomenon, left an indelible mark on the fabric of Indian society.
Inclusion and compassion
Central to the Bhakti movement was the rejection of the rigid caste system, relegating certain communities to the margins of social and religious life. Bhakti saints and poets, known as Bhaktas, challenged the notion of caste-based discrimination and hierarchy, proclaiming the inherent equality of all beings in the eyes of the divine. Through their devotional songs, poems, and teachings, they espoused a message of inclusivity, compassion, and universal love.
One of the most notable features of the Bhakti movement was its diversity and plurality of expressions. It manifested in various regional languages, including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Bengali, Hindi, and Gujarati. Each linguistic tradition produced its own body of Bhakti literature, comprising devotional hymns, songs, narratives, and philosophical discourses, all praising the virtues of divine love and surrender.
The Bhakti movement also witnessed the rise of charismatic saint-poets who served as beacons of spiritual wisdom and social reform. Figures such as Mirabai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Sant Tukaram, and Guru Nanak, among others, became revered for their profound devotion, and uncompromising advocacy for social justice. Through their lyrical compositions and sermons, they inspired masses to cultivate a deeper connection with the divine and to lead lives guided by moral integrity.
Moreover, the Bhakti movement catalysed significant changes in the religious landscape of India, nurturing religious tolerance. It facilitated the cross-fertilisation of ideas and practices among different religious traditions. It played a pivotal role in the democratisation of religious authority and access to sacred knowledge. By emphasising the direct experience of the divine through personal devotion, it empowered individuals from all walks of life to engage with spiritual teachings.
Oneness of the divine
One of the most influential Bhakti poets of medieval India was Kabir. He was born in the late 14th century in what is now known as Uttar Pradesh. Kabir’s poems, known as ‘dohas’, were simple yet powerful expressions of devotion to the divine. He rejected the idea of idol worship and emphasised on the oneness of God. His dohas were written in a language that was accessible to common people, making his teachings widely popular. Even today, his dohas are sung and recited by people from all walks of life.
Another prominent figure in the Bhakti movement was Mirabai. She was a Rajput princess who renounced her royal life to devote herself entirely to Lord Krishna. Her devotional songs or ‘bhajans’ expressed her intense love and longing for Krishna. Through her poems, she challenged societal norms to follow her path of devotion. Mirabai’s bhajans continue to be sung and celebrated by devotees of Lord Krishna.
Tulsidas, a 16th-century poet and saint, was another significant figure in the Bhakti movement. He was a devotee of Lord Ram and is best known for his epic poem ‘Ramcharitmanas’, which narrates the story of Lord Rama in the local language of Awadhi. The poem not only became immensely popular among the masses but also played a significant role in popularising the ideals of devotion and righteousness.
Inner spiritual richness
While the Bhakti movement was gaining momentum in the Hindu community, a similar devotional movement was taking shape in Islamic circles – the Sufi movement. Sufism is a mystical branch of Islam that emphasises on the inner spiritual experience rather than external religious practices. The Sufi saints, known as ‘pirs’ or ‘sufis’, spread their teachings through devotional songs or qawwalis.
Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, fondly remembered as Khwaja Garib Nawaz, occupies a significant place in the annals of Sufi history, particularly in the context of medieval India. Born in the 12th century in Persia, Khwaja Chishti embarked on a spiritual journey marked by profound love and devotion towards the divine. His arrival in India marked the beginning of a transformative era in the country’s spiritual landscape, as he became one of the foremost proponents of Sufism – rooted in the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment.
Upon settling in Ajmer, Khwaja Chishti established a Sufi order and his teachings transcended the confines of religious orthodoxy, emphasising the primacy of love (ishq) and devotion (ibadat) as the means to attain closeness to God. Unlike many religious leaders of his time, Khwaja Chishti welcomed people from all walks of life, irrespective of their social or economic status. The dargah (shrine) of Khwaja Chishti in Ajmer emerged as a sacred space of pilgrimage and spiritual solace, attracting millions of devotees from diverse religious backgrounds.
Another influential Sufi saint was Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, who lived in Delhi during the 13th century. He believed in the power of music to connect with God and popularised qawwalis as a form of devotional expression. His teachings focused on love and compassion for all beings, and his dargah in Delhi remains a popular pilgrimage site for people of all faiths.
The works of these Sufi saints and their followers were not limited to spiritual teachings but also had a profound impact on the literature of the time. Their poems and songs, known as ‘kalam’, were not just expressions of devotion but also reflected the social, cultural, and political realities of the period. They used imagery and metaphors to convey their mystical experiences and spread their message of love and unity.
Most Sufi saints wrote in local languages, and not Persian, such as in Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, etc. For example, Baba Farid used Punjabi for religious writings. Syed Gesu Daraz wrote in Deccani Hindi and Shaikh Hamiduddin expressed in Hindawi.
The emergence of Bhakti and Sufi traditions in medieval Indian literature brought about a significant shift in the literary landscape. These devotional movements provided a platform for common people to express their faith and emotions, breaking free from the rigid religious traditions of the time. Moreover, their teachings of love, equality, and inclusivity continue to inspire people even today, making them relevant in modern times.
Sufi poet and scholar and spiritual disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, Amir Khusrau was one of the most notable writers of the time. He lived during the period of the Delhi Sultanate, wrote in Hindi (Hindawi) and Persian and created a new style known as sabaq-i-hindi. Regarded as the ‘father of qawwali’, he also introduced the ghazal style of songs to India.